Pyramids of knowledge creation

Since the secularisation of the University of Havana in 1842, the practice of awarding the scientific grade of doctor in dicsiplines such as the natural sciences, law, medicine, and philosophy was established in Cuba. Although the grade of licencia (or Bachelor)already existed, this was not considered necessary in scientific research in Cuba at the beginning of the second half of the 20th century (2). This contrasted with the situation in those countries of the world that had reached the highest standard of living. It took several years of training to become doctor in France or the United States, after having obtained the first degree and lobally, doctoral preparation in the 20th century was accepted as a third cycle or postgraduate level. However, in Cuba, until the year 1962, bachiller was awarded on graduating from secondary high school and doctor on graduating from university. It was not necessary to create knowledge, nor be an independent researcher, to become doctor.

In the twenty-first century it is not sufficient to look only at the history of university development in Europe or the more economically advanced societies of Asia or America. We do not need to treat them as models or imitate them in order to develop a strong higher education system which can act as promoter and protagonist for progress and social well-being. It is better to take useful concepts from everywhere and incorporate them into a socio-economic system for an emerging country, which can often be rendered impotent by lack of resources. One of the principal reasons for that impotence is precisely the absence of an endogenous system of creation (and also retention) of higher-level professionals and leaders of science and technology who guarantee innovation and progress and are themselves creators of knowledge.

The forms of knowledge creation in universities tend to be framed by the activities of research and scientific and technological development. A higher education system which reaches a level of identification and correspondence with the society in which it is located, cannot disregard the fact that knowledge creation is an essential activity of its students and academics, nor that the latter should be evaluated as much for their capacity to create as well as to convey knowledge. This is one means of differentiating between a developed and an underdeveloped higher education system.

This paper will argue that the creation of knowledge and knowledge creators is part of the mission of a system of higher education in any emerging country, if it is to be realistic in claiming to achieve a higher level of well-being for its people and a fairer, more equitable society. I will also discuss sevral possible ways to successfully address this mission, starting from an evaluation of the post-revolutionary Cuban experience.

Scientific research and the knowledge creation in higher education

It is not necessary to enter into detailed definitions: today it is generally accepted that scientific research is a process of obtaining new information or the transformation of existing information about a given system object but always with the final aim of generating new knowledge in the system subject who is homo sapiens (3). Scientific research is, essentially, a process of knowledge creation. Figure 1 illustrates how this process can be seen in as a series of interactions.

Figure. 1. Scientific research as knowledge creation

If we accept the above definitions that doctoral preparation is the creation of knowers (conocedores), this process is also important for the inherent creation of knowledge which is part of it. Doctoral formation takes place in higher education and in any academic institution capable of conducting the process depending on the availability of scientific leaders and adequate resources for research.

Clearly the process of knowledge creation is not exclusive to doctoral preparation. Across the world and with various nuances it is accepted that the higher education system awards degrees such as the licence or licenciatura in the francophone and hispanic-speaking world, the diploma in Germany, the anglophone bachelor degree and the gakushi in Japan. Postgraduate preparation, or the third cycle, also exists in several different forms, and in particular the Masters programmes (maestrías) are important in the hierarchy since they award a degree carrying a certain level of social recognition and facilitate the process of specialisation. In all these processes, a greater or lesser proportion of scientific research and the consequent creation of knowledge occurs. Nevertheless the difference with respect to the process of doctoral preparation, such as we understand it in this current discussion, is rooted in that in none of the previous levels of education is the creation of new knowledge an indispensable requisite as it undoubtedly is in doctoral formation.

In Figure 2 an arbitrary quadratic function is used to represent an estimate of the knowledge creation in the different stages of education as proportional to the area below the curve (in green).

Figure. 2. Knowledge creation at different stages of education

Pyramids for knowledge creation and knowledge creators

However, in an open, functioning higher education institution and one which places emphasis on science, the role played by the other academic awards (masters and bachelors) and the preparation that leads to them, can be decisive in the creation of knowledge. This is based on a structure which we can call pyramids of creation, by which we mean the (often informal) forms of organisation of human scientific work, which occur in the process of science education where the apex is occupied by one or more scientific leaders and the base by participants who are at different stages in the process of formation. One of the basic characteristics is that the scientific leaders of lower pyramids can be elements of creation in the higher pyramids. In Figure 3 below, level 1 is the local scientific leadership and the additional (hierarchically numbered) pyramids indicate leaderships of subordinate pyramids and participants in the higher pyramids.

Figure 3. Pyramids of creation.

An example of this can be found in the Cuban university system following national reform in 1962 (4). What predominated at that time was not only the need to recast the national higher education system but also to bring into force an enduring paradigm of development which would be indispensable for meeting the social goals of the country. The potential of the process of scientific research, which had previously been sporadic and under-valued, was recognised and the first necessity was for it to generate results for social use. The provisions for this university reform were extremely open and progressive, giving a preferential option to the dissertation (tesis de grado) as a requirement for obtaining the licenciatura, which in this way approximated much more a masters degree (MA or MSc in the anglophone system) than the simple bachelor degree.

The most significant aspect, and one which forms part of my own personal experience, is that immediately the new cohort of academics then emerging began to use the research processes - conducive to the dissertations of their students - to move forward their own research. Thus were created, almost spontaneously, the first pyramids of creation, where the 'elements' were the undergraduate students and the 'scientific leaders' were young graduate lecturers - who were themselves rebuilding the university from the different faculties, many of which were also recently constituted. Therefore the first pyramids were not in fact hierarchically arranged but rather horizontally spread out across much the same level. The system of doctoral (PhD)training did not exist in Cuba and neither with any strength was there a system at masters level (MSc, MA) although some newly created universities and research centres addressed this in the early 1970s and began to award such degrees.

Thus, the process of formation of these pyramids of creation occured more or less spontaneously and in a generally localised direction, thereby contributing to the early identification of those young faculty members with the qualities for scientific leadership (5).

Such a situation characterised the late 1960s and led to a natural endogenous development throughout higher education in post-revolutionary Cuba. Out of this arose the inevitable need to formalise doctoral education and much effort was ecpended on this in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Legislation of 1975 establishing the criteria for scientific degrees was modified in the early 1990s, leading to the present degrees of doctor in individual sciences and the general doctor of sciences.

In the case of Cuba, many of the current fields of scientific success drew fundamentally on Western European science, especially between 1962 and 1972, this influence lasting until the present day in the field of biomedical sciences. North-American scientific influence has always come through Canada and - in a very limited although always important way - from the USA, through scientific literature in the public domain. The economic blockade and the systematic hostility to a greater or lesser degree of ten US administrations have negatively impaced on what should have been a flow of opportunity in both directions.

We did, however, have generally positive and certainly extensive access to the Soviet Russian and German scientific 'schools' or centres which predominated in central and Eastern Europe, systems typical of what was then the European socialist bloc. Thousands of young specialists, between the ages of 25 and 40, were sent to study for doctorates in those countries (6). Fortunately, the institutions where they studied had a prestigious reputation for scientific production. Political considerations aside - whether seen as positve or negative - in this final period of the cold war, the Eastern European impact on contemporary Cuban science has been without a doubt both crucial and constructive.

Nonetheless, it is important to highlight the fact that Cubans were not able to inherit traditions of developing the productive sector through science from Eastern European countries, for the simple reason that such traditions did not exist or were relatively isolated. Those young socialist experiments came of age in the context of an irreconcilable bureaucratic divorce between knowledge creation in higher education or other academic institutions and technological innovation in the national economies (7).

Thus it was in an unregulated way that pyramids of creation were formed in the Cuban higher education system: they prevail and continue to provide the principle means of sustaining key scientific implementation, including today's highly productive centres consituting the Scientific Pole of Western Havana.

It should also be highlighted that, in the case of Cuba, there was manifest political conviction and idealism among those in the doctoral process, deriiving from the economic blockade on their country rather than seeking opportunities for personal success through emigration or professional positions affording a significantly greater material well-being. There is no doubt that the high level of political capital of the Cuban revolution and its leader, Fidel Castro, played a prominent role in mobilising volunteers and motivating them to build an extraordinary scientific movement.

Conditions for the creation of knowledge and knowledge creators in emerging societies

The case of post-revolutionary Cuba cannot be replicated entirely in other time periods or the different conditions of other countries. However, it is possible to draw generalisations from this situation which could be of great value elsewhere, providing a positive model and thus facilitating other societies in the process of emerging from a state of scientific underdevelopment. Let us attempt here to summarise the key action points:

Organisation of a national scientific system
The first generalisable element, in my opinion, lies in the creation of flexible and open organisational conditions in the higher education system which can facilitate the development of pyramids of creation and give them preference in at every level. In Cuba the creation of scientific groups was achieved practically wherever one wanted and at whatever level the conditions were conducive. The very structure of the scientific units in the present higher education system are evidence of this.

Because of this, the flexibility and openness has to be evident in recognising various forms of organisation of scientific work and in conceiving a system making good use of all the possible connections - especially external relations - and planning linked to economic activities of the country.

Motivation
An indispensable factor is the generation of an ethos of commitment to the need for knowledge among both scientific leaders and creative elements in all the pyramids. This ethos cannot be imposed, only stimulated. It has to pervade the consciousness of youth: the younger generation needs to be inclined towards education, solidarity and social responsibility rather than personal well-being and the pursuit of a high income as the only motivation in life. Here, the criteria of local and national pride as well as ideological motivation can have an excellent impact. Naturally, consideration of economic motivation cannot be excluded. The British empire in Victorian times; the bourgeoisie before and after the revolution in France; the German provinces without colonies; Soviet Russia since the second world war - all these can be seen as good examples of an effective combination of factors for extraordinary scientific development.

Endogenous development
In the case of a society in development, international support is indispensable in the promotion of the knowledge creation and knowledge creators. However, this can be grounded neither on the competence nor the free circulation of scientists. There is the great risk that any new generation of developing specialists will be harvested by the external provider, by offers of much higher living and working conditions than any that can be offered to the young scientists by their country of origin. Such offers are generally implicit, rather than explicit, masked - perhaps unintentionally - by sponsors behind the elegant and admissible intentions of "development aid for emerging countries."

While nationalistic ideas or ideological criteria or political militancy can certainly help to alleviate this devastating situation, it is also the case that such pillage continues and the developing country sees many of its best leaders lost without recourse, often to second rate and unimportant positions in the richer host country.

There is no easy solution to this - and it is probably the main challenge facing an effective process of creation of knowledge and knowledge creators in an emerging society. The most likely scenario for success in this field is to promote the process endogenously, with recognised national leaders (who may or may not be in higher education) or through importing scientific leaders (either temporarily or permanently) although the latter may be beyond the financial means of a typical emerging country.

Among other aspects, endogenous promotion encourages the work of reproducing the creation of knowledge and knowledge creators by local scientific leaders, provided they have proper funding. This can only happen through awareness-raising in all spheres of the economy to promote science and technology as the only way to create wealth in our globalised world. Actions should involve the transfer of significant resources from the social sector, which then directly generates an economic value to the academic sector. At the same time, the aim is to obtain scientific and technological results of direct advantage to the sponsor - who in this way also becomes a patron of national progress. A good example of this can be seen with the most recent policies for science and technology in bolivarian Venezuela(8).

Sources of funding related to the needs of society and technological innovation
Funding is absolutely necessary for achieving the creation of knowledge and knowledge creators in higher education and other academic institutions. Exactly how this financing is to be managed should form part of the guiding principles of any society for its own development. The most appropriate people to evaluate such funding needs are those who represent the interests of the people - in whatever concrete way this representation is organised in different countries. It is recognised that there is no mechanism which can guarantee a perfect democracy to these ends. Nevertheless, this does not stop us from taking the best possible procedures with the aim of awarding funding for scientific research in those areas which are the most promising and necessary for the development of the whole society.

In general, in basic natural sciences, hard sciences or social sciences, this funding has to come from the state or from non-commercial organisations. For technological innovation, it should come from the business sector and specialist institutions.

Conclusion

The foregoing argument is neither concluded nor conclusive. It deals with a topic rarely that is present in the mainstream media and also tends to be absent from political debate in emerging countries. Rarely do we demonstrate the awareness of the need for actions such as these to equip our societies for true development - which is human development. Nor do we demonstrate an awareness of the need to adapt our academic systems for the true creation of knowledge and knowedge creators.

I took as my starting point the conventional definition of 'doctor of philosophy' to demonstrate that scientific research, which is intrinsic to the process of doctoral training and other academic degrees, implies the existence of a higher education which is socially useful in a number of dimensions, including:

- the creation of knowledge as a motor for a country's social and economic development
- the preparation of the most highly qualified citizens for a highly evolved society.

In other words, in postgraduate education or the third cycle, the creation of scientists (or more generally, academics) who have the capacity to create knowledge as independent researchers, is a highly socially effective and beneficial process of promoting development and well-being.

As regards the means of implementing these processes in emerging social systems, the experience of Cuban higher education offers certain guiding principles for the creation of "pyramids of creation" which guarantee the creation of both knowledge and knowledge creators. These experiences can be summarised as follows:

• Demonstrate and put into practice an ethos of scientific development which identifies, engages and motivates potential scientific leaders and mobilises a significant proportion of society. This consciousness should not be limited to the academic sphere but should equally apply to the country's economic institutions which create value and should be responsible for managing and providing the majority of the funding for applied research and technological innovation in the most needed directions.
• Establish an open and flexible system for the structure and organisation of scientific working groups which facilitates the emergence of pyramids of creation, with no condition other than the availability of human and material potential and the relevance of the work.
• Provide institutional support for the endogenous promotion of science. Where necessary, an attempt can be made to secure external support in situ, whether national or international, from highly qualified personnel who can play the role of scientific leaders in accordance with specific needs. This could also be recommended for an investment in scientific plant and equipment to facilitate an adequate material base for scientific and technological work.
• Establish a fluid and thematic system of funding which responds to immediate and medium-term needs of society in both basic sciences and technological innovation.

By such means, the creation of knowledge and knowledge creators, especially at doctoral level, can transform a country's development and also prove to be of major benefit to other countries travelling the same road.

Luís Montero Cabrera is Director of the Laboratory of Computational and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Havana, Cuba and is Chair of the Scientific Council of the University. He is internationally known for his ground-breaking research into the quantum molecular processes in the retina, the chemistry and physics of vision.


Notes

(1) National Research Council Commission of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA (1995) Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States. Continuity and Changes.

(2) Angelo Baracca (ed.) (2005) History of the Development of Physics in Cuba. The development of an advanced scientific system in an underdeveloped country. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, PREPRINT 302.
(Downloadable at http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P302.PDF)

(3) González Alonso, J., Montero Cabrera, L.A. (1976) "Aplicación de un enfoque de sistemas en el análisis de los planes de investigaciones de los centros de educación superior en Cuba", in Sovremennaya Visshaia Shkola, 1976 (3) 231 (in Russian).

(4) Consejo Superior de Universidades (1962) La Reforma de la Enseñanza Superior en Cuba. La Habana: Universidad de La Habana.

(5) For the most comprehensive information available see: Castro Lamas, J. (2004) Diagnóstico y perspectiva de los estudios de postgrado en Cuba. Resumen ejecutivo, La Habana: Ministerio de Educación Superior.

(6) Cuban graduates in the Soviet Union alone numbered more than a thousand per year starting in 1980-81. Source: Dirección de Relaciones Internacionales, Ministerio de Educación Superior.

(7) This problem is certainly not exclusive to that system. Although for other reasons, it still prevails in the world economy, according to Barbería, J.L.: "60,000 scientists sought", El País, Madrid, 17th October 2005.

(8) The Law of Science, Technology and Innovation (LOCTI) National Assembly of Venezuela, 12th July 2005. The partial regulation was passed on 9th October 2006. The first version was published as Decree No.1,290 (having full legal power) in the Official Gazette No. 37,291, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, on 6th September 2001.

Copyright
Copyright for this work is held jointly between Luís Montero Cabrera and the International Journal of Cuban Studies under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivative 3.0 Licence

IJCS Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008